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Nội dung chính- Cognitive Dissonance1 Foundations of Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance TheoryPreventing Body Image ProblemsDissonance ApproachesCognitive Dissonances and Musical EmotionsFuture Research and SummaryEmotions of Cognitive DissonancesInternalization of Thin-Ideal and Muscular-IdealComponents of Dissonance-Based InterventionsSimulating Psychological Phenomena and DisordersSocial PsychologyDissonance: Persuasion from BehaviorIntroduction2.2 Reduction of Cognitive DissonanceHow does the notion of effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance quizlet?How does effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance?Does effort justification reduce cognitive dissonance?What are examples of cognitive dissonance?
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Cognitive disequilibrium is a state that occurs when people face obstacles to goals, interruptions, contradictions, incongruities, anomalies, uncertainty, and salient contrasts (D'Mello & Graesser, 2012a,b;
From: Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2012
Cognitive Dissonance
J. Cooper, K.M. Carlsmith, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001
1 Foundations of Dissonance Theory
The theory of cognitive dissonance is elegantly simple: it states that inconsistency between two cognitions creates an aversive state akin to hunger or thirst that gives rise to a motivation to reduce the inconsistency. According to Leon Festinger (1957), cognitions are elements of knowledge that people have about their behavior, their attitudes, and their environment. As such, a set of cognitions can be unrelated, consonant, or dissonant with each other. Two cognitions are said to be dissonant when one follows from the obverse of the other. The resultant motivation to reduce dissonance is directly proportional to the magnitude and importance of the discrepant cognitions, and inversely proportional to the magnitude and importance of the consistent cognitions. This tension is typically reduced by changing one of the cognitions, or adding new cognitions until mental ‘consonance’ is achieved. Festinger's original formulation proved to be one of the most robust, influential, and controversial theories in the history of social psychology. Although a number of challenges and revisions have been suggested, the basic behavioral observation remains uncontested and continues to stimulate fresh research.
Application of this theory has yielded many surprising and nonintuitive predictions. For example, conventional wisdom suggests that behavior follows from attitudes; dissonance theory, however, identifies conditions under which just the opposite occurs. An early and often replicated experiment illustrates the power and counterintuitiveness of the theory. In what is now known as the induced compliance effect, Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) asked individuals to perform 30 minutes of a mind-numbingly tedious activity, and then to persuade a waiting participant that the activity was in fact quite interesting. This situation created cognitive dissonance in most individuals—they believed that the task was boring, yet inexplicably found themselves arguing quite the opposite. Half of the participants were given a ready excuse for telling this lie—they were paid $20 to do so—while the other half, paid only $1, had no such excuse. Those with a clear justification for their odd behavior experienced no dissonance and, as one would expect, later reported that the task was rather boring. The other half, however, given insufficient justification for their behavior, experienced dissonance between the knowledge that the task was boring and the reality that they were misleading a fellow participant into believing the opposite. Rather than endure the aversive experience of believing one thing but saying another, these individuals changed their opinion and convinced themselves that the task was actually interesting. In other words, their attitude was shaped by their behavior.
Subsequent studies have confirmed the basic theory of cognitive dissonance and demonstrated its far-reaching impact. For example, cognitive dissonance explains the increased commitment so frequently observed following a severe initiation into a group. The theory also explains why, when faced with a choice among several desirable options, we observe the tendency to highlight positive aspects of the chosen option and negative aspects of the rejected alternatives after (and only after) the choice has been made. In the course of such studies, we have learned much about the boundary conditions associated with the theory and have identified anomalies not easily explained by the original theory. Since the 1960s, a number of theoretical revisions have sought to subsume these limitations under a unifying theory. This article summarizes briefly the leading reformulations of dissonance theory and speculates on future directions.
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
E. Harmon-Jones, in Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Second Edition), 2012
Abstract
The theory of cognitive dissonance and its major experimental paradigms are described in this article. When an individual holds two or more elements of knowledge that are relevant to each other but inconsistent with one another, a state of discomfort or dissonance is created. Organisms are motivated by the state of dissonance and they may engage in ‘psychological work’ to reduce the inconsistency. Revisions to the original theory and their supporting research are then described. The major theoretical revisions differ primarily in terms of the motivation they posit for causing dissonance reduction. The revisions are self-consistency, self-affirmation, new look, and action-based model.
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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123750006000975
Preventing Body Image Problems
J.A. O’Dea, in Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance, 2012
Dissonance Approaches
Prevention programs based on cognitive dissonance and the use of the Internet have been widely and successfully implemented among female college models, but their use has not yet filtered down to the school setting. Cognitive Dissonance Theory has generally been used with -risk women, and outside of the school setting. This approach intersects nicely with models of interactive and student-centered learning as well as fitting with the principles of developing truyền thông literacy, making it a good fit for the school setting. The focus on public sharing of attitudes that contradict societal body toàn thân standards could potentially be useful for all students, with and without body toàn thân image problems, as it would assist in creating healthier peer norms that would extend the benefits of the program beyond the time in which it is presented. Trials among -risk adolescent girls (17 years) outside the school setting have been effective and suggest that dissonance-based approaches could potentially be trialed in schools with older year levels (15 years and over), provided that teachers or facilitators were well trained in the use of this approach.
The Internet offers a broad range of opportunities for programs designed to improve body toàn thân image in a range of populations and such approaches could potentially be broadly disseminated very low cost, and with minimal teacher training, making them an exciting new possibility for school-based prevention. The use of the Internet offers the additional benefit of enabling both a universal and targeted program as initial activities can include screening for risk factors and tailoring the subsequent content. For example, ‘Student Bodies’ is an 8-week psycho-educational eating disorder prevention program that was developed in the United States and trialed among female adolescents (mean age 15.1 years) and their parents. It is recommended that future research investigate the use of cognitive dissonance and Internet-based approaches in schools.
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URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123849250001097
Music
Leonid Perlovsky, in Music, Passion, and Cognitive Function, 2022
Cognitive Dissonances and Musical Emotions
Contradictions among knowledge, let us repeat, are called cognitive dissonances. These are negative emotions created by contradictions between pieces of knowledge—between conceptual representations. To illustrate these emotions consider an example: a young scholar receives two offers once, one from Harvard and another from Oxford. Each offer alone would create strong positive emotions: satisfaction, pride, etc. These are well-understood basic emotions. But the choice between these two offers might be painful. This painful emotion is not related to bodily instincts, it is not a basic emotion; this is an emotion of cognitive dissonance, it is an aesthetic emotion. In this example the emotion can be very strong and conscious. Correspondingly, it would be resolved consciously, by weighing various aspects of these two alternatives. But the majority of cognitive dissonances are likely to be less conscious, or even unconscious. The barely noticeable, unpleasant emotions of the choice associated with knowledge can create a disincentive to knowledge and thinking. New knowledge creating cognitive dissonances often is quickly discarded. This indeed is well known and experimentally proven: the cognitive dissonance discomfort is usually resolved by devaluing and discarding a conflicting piece of knowledge. It is also known that awareness of cognitive dissonances is not necessary for actions to reduce the conflict, and these actions of discarding knowledge are often fast and momentary.
Let me repeat that cognitive dissonances often lead to discarding the contradicting knowledge. Everyone can observe it oneself. Watch carefully a usual conversation among people, not between a student and her Professor, but a normal conversation between regular people. Usually people do not listen to each other and immediately discard what they just have heard. We, scientists love to praise ourselves that we do not discard contradictions, that we enjoy contradictions because they give us food for thoughts, for creating theories overcoming contradictions. Yet what happens to discoveries that go against one’s theory, or even simpler, against accepted theories. Well-known studies of the growth of knowledge established that new ideas are ignored, usually until the next generation of scientists. Great scientific discoveries may provoke not only fascination but also envy and rivalry. But worse, as established in the 20th century, the first reaction could be a cognitive dissonance, and as a result the novel is ignored.
The negative aspect of cognitive dissonance, discarding of knowledge, has received significant attention since Tversky and Kahneman were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2002. Cognitive dissonance is among “the most influential and extensively studied theories in social psychology.” Still, the emotions of cognitive dissonances, their potential to destroy the drive for knowledge, and consequently the fundamental need to overcome their negative effects have not received sufficient attention. To overcome the negative effects of the emotions of cognitive dissonances, they must be brought into consciousness. This is the cognitive function of musical emotions. Music creates a huge number of differentiated emotions. Musical emotions help bringing to consciousness the emotions of cognitive dissonances, resolving them, and continuing the evolution of language, consciousness, and culture. The number of cognitive dissonances possibly is as large as the number of word combinations, practically infinite. Therefore aesthetic emotions that reconcile these contradictions are not just several feelings for which we can assign specific words. There is an almost uncountable infinity, virtually a continuum of aesthetic emotions. We feel this continuum of emotions (not just many separate emotions) when listening to music. We feel this continuum in Palestrina, Bach, Beethoven, Mozart, Chopin, Tchaikovsky, Shostakovich, The Beatles, and Lady Gaga … (and certainly this mechanism is not limited to western cultures). It is proposed in this chapter that musical emotions have evolved for the synthesis of differentiated consciousness, for reconciling the contradictions that are entailed every step of differentiation, and for creating a unity of differentiated Self.
The evolution of music, therefore, was necessary for evolution of culture. If not music, cognitive dissonances would have created disincentive to learning, including learning of language and learning any knowledge, which of course are the essence of culture. Musical emotions continue performing this function in cognition: overcoming cognitive dissonances so that culture continue evolving.
The origin of music resolving cognitive dissonances disappears from scientific sight the dawn of human culture. Nikolsky wrote that Aurignacian culture (more than 30,000 years ago) developed conception of the Lunar calendars, “this re-oriented the entire lifestyle from local time to cosmic rhythms, which must have induced psychological stress on our predecessors who had to reconcile different notions of time, day/night, summer/winter, solar/lunar, as well as space.” This “must have led to cognitive dissonances raising the need for compensating ‘cognitive consonance’ of music, and resulted in the substantial increase in harmonicity involving a transition from indefinite interval–based tonal organization to definite interval organization.” This makes much sense in view of findings of Aurignacian pentatonic bone flutes.
Unification of musical modes into a single family in the great civilizations of the Bronze Age, also could be viewed within the context of growing cognitive dissonance. Rational harmonization of the entire compass of all available music tones appears as a natural progression of human culture. Inspired by correlative cosmologies, mathematically-based theories of music harmony catered to neurobiological need of the brain to reduce informational stress by employing a new strategy of organizing data and establishing ways for synthesis of new quality.
Here we come to understanding why music has such a strong power over us. Every piece of knowledge creates cognitive dissonances. We live in cognitive dissonances, in a sea of negative emotions created by them, “in much wisdom is much grief.” And if not music we would continuously suffer negative emotions related to knowledge. Music helps us alleviate these negative emotions. Cognitive dissonances extend from minor everyday choices, such as a choice of drink between coca-cola and water, to life disappointments familiar to everyone, unrequited love, betrayal by friends, and loved ones. We do not notice negative emotions related to minor everyday choices, because we have a lot of emotions to overcome them. Strong dissonances related to disappointments with friends and loved ones are a major topic of popular songs. This is the reason we want to listen to Elvis Presley, The Beatles, and Lady Gaga. Most of popular songs help us to overcome these dissonances.
And of course there are ultimate emotional discomforts, dissonances related to our desire to live and the same time the knowledge that our material existence is finite. Otherwise it is impossible to understand why people enjoy sad music. The most listened piece of music is Adagio for Strings by Barber, which is so sad it cannot be listened without tears. In 2004 listeners of the BBC’s Today program voted Adagio for Strings the “saddest classical” work ever. In 2006 it was the highest selling classical piece on iTunes.
Music helps us to enjoy better our happy moments and to survive in the ocean of grief. This is why it holds such a sway over our souls.
Whereas language has differentiated the human Self into pieces, music has restored the unity of Self. This cognitive function of music is a scientific hypothesis, a theoretical prediction that has to be verified experimentally, and Chapter 5, Experimental Tests of the Theory: Music, discusses experiments confirming this theory.
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Future Research and Summary
Leonid Perlovsky, in Music, Passion, and Cognitive Function, 2022
Emotions of Cognitive Dissonances
A related research should study emotional spaces of cognitive dissonances. Again well-explored standard psychological techniques of studying emotions (Fontanari et al., 2012) can be used. First, subjective measures of emotional similarities can be collected; second, these measures are analyzed mathematically to determine the number of independent emotions, e.g., eigenvalues. Experimental psychologists again should expect difficulties related to an expected large number of emotions. Another specific difficulty is to make sure that subjects concentrate on emotions of cognitive dissonance and are not distracted by semantics of phrases used to create the dissonances.
Other experimental techniques discussed for musical emotions can be used to measure emotions of cognitive dissonances. Every cognitive dissonance is expected to create a pattern of neuronal excitations in emotional brain centers. These patterns can be analyzed by using standard mathematical techniques present in every data analyzes package, such as eigenvalues or multidimensional scaling. Again, these mathematically identified emotions can be related to human feelings using subjective judgments. Thus cognitive dissonances could connect a wealth of aesthetic emotions that have never been studied to language description of these emotions by phrases used to create cognitive dissonances.
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Internalization of Thin-Ideal and Muscular-Ideal
J.K. Thompson, ... J.E. Menzel, in Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance, 2012
Components of Dissonance-Based Interventions
Several methods are used to produce cognitive dissonance and are the core of every DBI program. First, participants volunteer to participate in the program and keep an open mind regarding topics discussed. Feeling that participation is voluntary is critical for creating dissonance. Next, participants define and label the thin ideal, and discuss the origins of the thin ideal and other standards of beauty that have been held through history, and how messages of the thin ideal are conveyed (e.g., through the truyền thông) and maintained. Then several methods are used to create dissonance regarding appearance ideals, including practicing restricting pressures to adhere to the thin and muscular ideals, demonstrating attitudes and behaviors counter to appearance ideals, writing about the negative consequences of adhering to appearance ideals, and passing advice to others on how to resist the thin and muscular ideals. Each DBI may include several combinations of these activities performed over one or more sessions.
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Simulating Psychological Phenomena and Disorders
Warren W. Tryon, in Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychotherapy, 2014
Social Psychology
Cognitive DissonanceThere have been several connectionist simulations of cognitive dissonance. They include but are not limited to Read and Miller (1994), Shultz et al. (1999), Spellman et al. (1993), Thagard (1989), and Van Overwalle and Jordan (2002). I do not feature these simulations because consonance seeking has been promoted to network Principle 7: Consonance and Dissonance. This principle is basic to connectionist models of attitude formation and change among other psychological phenomena.
Attitude Formation and ChangeAttitude formation and change is a primary clinical task, as well as a major topic of social psychology research. Grounding clinical practice in psychological science requires incorporating what is known about attitude formation and change. Monroe and Read (2008) provided a general introduction to this topic and an explanation of the relevance of connectionist modeling. They extended connectionist reasoning to define attitudes as a form of constraint satisfaction. Their general model was aimed theoretical unification rather than replication of one effect. The key idea here is that attitudes are linked together into a belief network, such that modifying one attitude requires adjustments in others. Conversely, attitude change in one area is resisted precisely because it requires attitude adjustment in other areas. The process of attitude formation and change is modeled as a dynamic network in accordance with the proposed core and corollary network principles.
SterotypesStereotypes are a form of impression formation. Kunda and Thagard (1996) understand impression formation as a parallel constraint satisfaction problem, because the person needs to decipher and integrate perceived information into a network of preexisting knowledge concerning traits and behaviors. The authors presented a PDP-CNN model of stereotype formation.
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Persuasion
J. Barden, R.E. Petty, in Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Second Edition), 2012
Dissonance: Persuasion from Behavior
Leon Festinger was the first to describe cognitive dissonance, which provides a striking example of how our own behaviors can lead to attitude change. According to cognitive dissonance theory, any two thoughts that are related to each other can either be consonant or dissonant. Dissonant cognitions occur when one thought does not follow from or fit with the other (e.g., I am an environmentalist; I drive an SUV) Holding two dissonant cognitions in the mind simultaneously leads to an aversive state of arousal that individuals are motivated to reduce. Dissonant cognitions often arise when an individual thinks about a past behavior and realizes that it was inconsistent with an attitude that he or she holds, such as holding a positive attitude towards safe sex, but failing to use a condom. Under these circumstances, as it is more difficult to change the behavior than to change the attitude, the most common way to resolve the inconsistency is to change the attitude to be in line with the behavior. While changing the attitude typically requires cognitive effort, the negative affective state associated with dissonance is a powerful motivator to engage in biased elaborative processing. The result of dissonance processes is that individuals persuade themselves to change their attitudes to be in line with their behaviors. In this way, the dissonance resulting from a failure to use condoms could most readily be resolved by changing the attitude to be more negative towards condoms.
A number of experimental paradigms have been used to illustrate dissonance in the laboratory, and these provide explanations for some surprising phenomena in persuasion. Dissonance explains what happens to people who agonize over a difficult decision, whether it is a simple purchase or a major life decision, and then after the decision express more positive views of the chosen option, and more negative views of the nonchosen option. This is referred to as the ‘spreading of alternatives,’ and it occurs because the negative attributes of the chosen option and the positive attributes of the option not chosen are dissonant with the behavior of the choice that was made. Another example of dissonance occurs when people who are humiliated during an initiation to join a group like a fraternity or the armed forces, end up liking these groups more than if there was no hazing. As going through humiliation to join a group is dissonant with any negative aspects of the group, the attitude toward the group is changed to be more positive. This is referred to as ‘effort justification’ because the attitude change results from having to justify to the self the willingness to go through so much to join the group. These are just two examples of the paradoxical consequences of dissonance for persuasion (see the dissonance entry for more in-depth discussion).
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Introduction
Leonid Perlovsky, in Music, Passion, and Cognitive Function, 2022
In this process of “creating wholeness” music overcomes cognitive dissonances, unpleasant emotions related to contradictions in cognition. People do not like contradictions and avoid them as much as possible, even the cost of discarding new knowledge. The first description of discarding knowledge to avoid cognitive dissonance was given 2600 years ago by Aesop. In his fable, “The Fox and the Grape,” the fox experiences what we call today a cognitive dissonance: the fox sees hanging a beautiful ripe grape, but which is just a little bit too high to reach. The fox cannot get the grape but can avoid suffering from cognitive dissonance; the fox decides “the grape is sour.” In the 20th century hundreds of psychological experiments have been used to demonstrate that “if I cannot get it, then I do not need it” as a typical human behavior. And yet humans can overcome cognitive dissonances; otherwise, language, cognition, and culture would not evolve, as every piece of new knowledge contradicts previous knowledge.
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Motivation
P.-Y. Oudeyer, ... M. Lopes, in Progress in Brain Research, 2022
2.2 Reduction of Cognitive Dissonance
An alternative conceptualization was proposed by Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957), which asserted that organisms are motivated to reduce dissonance, defined as an incompatibility between internal cognitive structures and the situations currently perceived. Fifteen years later, a related view was articulated by Kagan stating that a primary motivation for humans is the reduction of uncertainty in the sense of the “incompatibility between (two or more) cognitive structures, between cognitive structure and experience, or between structures and behavior” (Kagan, 1972). More recently, the related concept of “knowledge gap” was argued to be a driver for curiosity-driven exploration (Lowenstein, 1994). However, these theories do not provide an account of certain spontaneous exploration behaviors which increase uncertainty (Gottlieb et al., 2013). Also, they do not specify whether the brain values differently or similarly different degrees of knowledge gaps.
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How does the notion of effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance quizlet?
Effort justification is often a motive for cognitive dissonance. Effort justification is often used to reduce cognitive dissonance. Effort justification is often used to reduce cognitive dissonance. be less prone to depression than other people.How does effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance?
Effort justification is an idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming from Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. Effort justification is a person's tendency to attribute a value to an outcome, which they had to put effort into achieving, greater than the objective value of the outcome.Does effort justification reduce cognitive dissonance?
Effort justification is a way of changing the value of existing cognitions, and is one method by which humans may attempt to reduce dissonance.What are examples of cognitive dissonance?
Some examples of cognitive dissonance include:. Smoking: Many people smoke even though they know it is harmful to their health. ... . Eating meat: Some people who view themselves as animal lovers eat meat and may feel discomfort when they think about where their meat comes from.. Tải thêm tài liệu liên quan đến nội dung bài viết How does the notion of effort justification relate to cognitive dissonance? Khỏe Đẹp Son Effort justification experiment